-NRLF 


A  GUIDE  FOR 

LABORATORY    GEOGRAPHY 

TEACHING 


BY 
O.  D.  VON  ENGELN,  PH.  D. 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR   IN  THE   DEPARTMENT   OF  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY   AT 
CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 

FOR  USE  IN  CONNECTION  WITH 


A  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  PHYSICAL  AND  COMMERCIAL 

GEOGRAPHY 


BY 

THE  LATE  PROFESSOR  R.  S.  TARR 

AND 

0.  D.  VON  ENGELN,  PH.  D. 


fork 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1913 


All  rights  reserved 


NEW  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

By  RALPH  S.  TARR,  Late  Professor  of  Physical  Geography  in  Cornell  University. 


Cloth,  I2mo,  fully  illustrated,  pp.  457.     $1.00  net. 


Some  points  of  interest  in  connection  with  this  book  are : 

1.  The  author  has  an  international  reputation  as  an  authority  in  the  field  of  geology 

and  physical  geography. 

2.  In  both  content  and  method  of  presentation  the  book  makes  a  strong  appeal  to  the 

human  interest  of  the  pupil.      It  is  well  written. 

3.  It  gives  particular  attention  to  the  geography  of  the  United  States. 

4.  The  illustrations  are  numerous,  superior  in  quality,  and  significant,  and  they  are  used 

systematically  throughout  the  book. 

5.  Topic  summaries,  topical  outlines,  and  review  questions  following  each  chapter  make 

its  use  easy  for  both  pupil  and  teacher. 

6.  Experience  shows  that  it  possesses  to  an  unusual  degree  those  qualities  that  make 

a  book  a  success  in  the  classroom.     It  is  widely  used  with  great  satisfaction. 


PUBLISHED    BY 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

64-66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 


A  GUIDE  FOR 

LABOEATORY    GEOGRAPHY 

TEACHING 


BY 

O.  D.  VON  ENGELN,  PH.  D. 

'i 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR   IX  THE   DEPARTMENT   OF  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY   AT 
CCBNELL  UNIVERSITY 

FOR  USE  IN  CONNECTION  WITH 


A  LABORATORY  MANUAL  OF  PHYSICAL  AND  COMMERCIAL 

GEOGRAPHY 


BY 

THE  LATE  PROFESSOR  R.  S.  TARR 

AND 

O.  D.  VON  ENGELN,  PH.  D. 


f  nrk 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1913 


All  rights  reserved 


COPYKIGHT,    1913, 

BT  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  February,  1913. 


PRESS    OF   1.    MOREY   4    SON 
OREENFIELD,  MASS.,  U.  8.  A. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction 1 

Why  and  how  of  laboratory  geography  instruction  in  schools 1 

The  manual  as  an  answer  to  these  queries 1 

Need  of  a  teacher's  guide 1 

Threefold  purpose  of  the  guide 1 

"  Why,"  or  the  Value  of  Laboratory  Geography  Teaching  and  Its  Applicability  to  Various  Phases  of  the 

Subject 1-3 

Geography  instruction  in  the  lower  schools 1 

Content  and  nature  of  advanced  texts 1-2 

Inadequacy  of  text  book  study  alone 2 

Function  of  geography  laboratories  and  geography  manuals 2 

Question  of  the  essential  need  of  laboratory  geography  and  its  practicability  as  a  school  course     2 

Wide  application  of  laboratory  geography  to  everyday  life  of  average  citizen 2 

Superior  training  in  observation  and  deduction  afforded  by  laboratory  geography 2 

Defects  of  previous  texts  and  teaching  of  laboratory  geography 3 

Human  interest  a  determining  factor  in  the  content  of  the  present  manual 3 

Systematic  grouping  of  exercises 3 

Availability  to  different  classes  of  teachers 3 

Low  cost  of  equipment 3 

Conservation  of  students'  time  and  effort 3 

"How,"  or  the  Content,  Make  up,  and  Specific  Methods  of  a  Laboratory  Manual  of  Geography  Conforming 

to  the  Requirements  Indicated 3-6 

Value  of  school  course  primarily  dependent  on  content 3 

Content  of  manual 3 

Plan  and  purpose  of  different  groups  of  exercises 4 

Mechanical  make  up  of  the  manual  and  directions  for  utilization  of  same' 5 

Making  up  courses  from  the  exercises  in  the  manual 6 

Suggestions  in  Regard  to  the  Different  Topics  and  Particular  Exercises 6-13 

Exercises  on  the  Earth  as  a  Whole 6-8 

Exercises  on  Minerals,  Rocks  and  Soil 8-9 

Exercises  on  Making  and  Interpretation  of  Topographic^Maps 9-10 

Exercises  on  the  Physiography  of  the  Lands 10-11 

Use  of  lantern  slides  in  laboratory  geography  work 11-12 

Method  of  mounting  maps  on  cloth 12 

Exercises  on  the  Ocean 12-13 

Exercises  on  the  Atmosphere ; 13 

Cross-section  Drawings  and  Maps 13-17 

Reproduction  of  complete  set  of  cross  sections  as  required  and  directed  in  exercises  on  Phys- 
iography of  the  Lands 13-15 

Reproduction  of  completed  seasonal  temperature  curves  required  in  Exercise  XLV 16 

Reproduction  of  Fig.  25,  Exercise  XLVIII  with  isothermal  lines  added 17 

List  of  Materials  Needed  for  Exercises 18-20 

Materials  to  which  no  cost  is  attached 18 

Materials  of  small  cost  to  be  supplied  by  student 18 

Material  of  special  design  to  be  supplied  by  school 18 

Material  of  small  cost  obtainable  from  local  stores  everywhere,  to  be  supplied  by  school 18 

Material  not  readily  obtainable  in  many  localities,  to  be  supplied  by  school 18-20 

Supplemental  material 20 

Summary  estimate  of  cost  of  complete  equipment 20 


^59719 


Objections  to  the  Introduction  of  Laboratory  Geography  Instruction. — In  schools  where 
laboratory  instruction  in  geography  has  never  been  given,  a  proposal  for  its  introduction  is 
often  met  by  two  pertinent  queries,  (a)  Why?  and  (b)  How? 

In  schools  where  such  instruction  is  given,  there  is  usually  a  demand,  corresponding  in  a 
sense  to  the  "why?"  query,  that  such  instruction  be  made  more  effective,  more  vital  to  the 
needs  of  the  pupils  and  more  interesting  in  the  class  room.  Moreover  the  question  "  how?  " 
is  often  almost  as  urgent  in  such  schools  as  in  those  where  laboratory  geography  instruc- 
tion has  never  been  attempted. 

Lack  of  Training  on  Part  of  Teachers  and  Defects  of  Earlier  Texts. — The  reason  for  this 
latter  difficulty  is,  in  many  instances,  readily  explained.  The  teacher  has  had  little  or  no 
specific  training  in  geography.  Therefore,  the  laboratory  texts,  heretofore  available,  dealing 
largely  with  problems  of  technical  geography  have  contained  little  that  is  at  once  interest- 
ing, suggestive,  and  intelligible  to  the  teacher.  Consequently,  the  exercises  are  taught  half 
heartedly,  with  no  originality  and  with  no  definite  purpose  or  clearness. 

Aim  of  the  Tarr  and  von  Engeln  Manual. — It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  authors  of  the 
Laboratory  Manual,  for  which  these  pages  are  to  serve  as  a  teacher's  guide,  to  produce  a 
text  which  would  in  itself  constitute  a  definite  answer  to  both  the  "why"  and  the  "how" 
queries.  In  other  words,  first,  to  make  the  purpose  of  each  exercise  so  definite,  concrete  and 
practical,  as  to  leave  no  doubt  in  the  mind  of  either  the  student  or  the  teacher  as  to  its 
value  from  the  practical,  cultural  and  pedagogical  viewpoints.  Second,  to  provide  instruc- 
tion of  such  content  and  manner  that  its  purport  and  method  will  be  clear  to  the  teacher 
who  has  not  had  previous  training  in  laboratory  geography;  and  to  provide  this  instruction 
in  such  a  form  as  will  most  facilitate  the  mechanical  routine  of  class  work. 

Purpose  and  Content  of  this  Guide. — The  purpose  and  content  of  this  pamphlet  is,  there- 
fore: (1)  to  point  out  why  laboratory  geography  should  be  taught,  and  on  which  phases  of 
the  subject  the  emphasis  should  be  put;  (2)  to  indicate  how  it  should  be  taught;  and  (3)  to 
give  practical  and  particular  suggestions  for  teaching  with  the  Laboratory  Manual,  to  the 
use  of  which  it  is  a  guide. 

"WHY?" 
OR  THE 

VALUE  OF  LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY  TEACHING 
AND  ITS  APPLICABILITY  TO  VARIOUS  PHASES  OF  THE  SUBJECT 

The  Emphasis  put  on  Regional  Geography  in  the  Grammar  Schools. — In  the  lower  schools 
the  regional  side  of  geography  receives  the  greatest  emphasis.  So  much  time  is  required 
to  give  a  comprehensive  drill  on  the  location  and  distribution  of  natural  and  cultural  fea- 
tures, and  the  memorizing  of  place  names,  that  only  a  beginning  can  be  made  in  teach- 
ing the  subject  from  the  "  explanatory"  side,  to  use  a  simple  comprehensive  term.  More- 
over, the  immaturity  of  the  students  makes  it  impossible  to  convey  to  their  understand- 
ing the  larger  concepts  of  the  subject.  Only  a  few  gain  even  so  much  knowledge  of  latitude 
and  longitude  as  will  serve  for  an  accurate  interpretation  of  a  map. 

Nature  and  Content  of  Advanced  Geography  Texts. — The  more  advanced  texts  endeavor 
to  meet  these  needs.  In  general  such  texts  are  of  two  kinds,  Physical  Geographies  and 
Commercial  Geographies.  In  both  classes  (Jf  texts  first  consideration  is  given  by  most 

1 


2  A   GUIDE  FOR  LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY   TEACHING 

modern  authors  to  the  development  of  the  explanatory  aspects  of  geography.  Usually, 
also,  the  more  difficult  space  concepts,  natural  geographic  regions,  and  climatic  relation- 
ships are  quite  fully  developed.  In  some  physical  geographies  study  has  been  centered 
too  exclusively  on  the  systematic  development  of  land  forms.  In  commercial  geographies 
the  subject  matter  may  consist  too  largely  of  the  facts  and  statistics  of  production.  Aside 
from  these  general  defects,  however,  both  types  of  text  are  well  adapted  to  the  require- 
ments of  more  advanced  study  in  geography,  as  indicated  above,  in  that  they  dwell  on 
the  causal  factors.  In  Professor  Tarr's  "New  Physical  Geography"  the  principles  of 
physical  geography  are  clearly  enunciated  and  the  human  relations  are  much  more  exten- 
sively developed  than  in  other  books  of  its  kind.  Therefore,  such  references  as  are  given 
in  the  text  of  the  present  Laboratory  Manual  are  to  pages  in  this  volume.  It  needs  only 
the  consulting  of  an  index,  however,  to  adapt  these  references  to  almost  any  modern  text  of 
either  physical  or  commercial  geography. 

Inadequacy  of  Text  Book  Study  alone  and  Function  of  Laboratory  Study. — But  a  personal 
and  intimate  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  geographical  facts  and  relationships  can  not 
be  gained  from  text  book  study  alone,  whether  of  physical  geography  or  commercial  geography. 
To  know  geography  the  student  must  himself  work  with  the  materials  of  geography.  He 
must  be  trained  to  make  independent  geographic  observations  and  deductions.  To  give 
such  training  is  the  purpose  and  the  function  of  geography  laboratories  and  geography 
manuals. 

Practicability  of  Laboratory  Geography  Instruction. — The  truth  of  the  statements  and 
conclusions  of  the  foregoing  paragraph  will  probably  gain  a  ready  assent  from  everyone  in- 
terested. But  to  gain,  or  hold,  a  place  in  the  curriculum  of  many  schools,  laboratory  study 
in  geography  must  satisfy  another  requirement,  which  may  be  put  in  the  form  of  a  double 
question:  Is  such  training  distinctly  essential  to  the  average  student;  and  can  it  be  made 
both  practical  and  interesting  without  elaborate  equipment  and  specially  trained  teachers? 

The  first  part  of  the  question  involves  two  factors,  (a)  how  closely  such  training  meets 
the  needs  of  the  everyday  future  life  of  the  majority  of  students,  and  (b)  whether  it  pos- 
sesses educational  value  greater  than  that  of  other  subjects  that  it  may  displace.  In  other 
words,  is  such  training  preeminently  practical  (useful)  and  does  it  provide  a  superior  kind 
of  mental  culture? 

Laboratory  Instruction  in  Geography  Essential  to  Good  Citizenship. — It  is  not  dif- 
ficult to  answer  these  questions.  A  laboratory  study  of  geography  will  give  the  general 
student  a  background  and  basis  for  intelligent  future  reading  of  current  events  in 
newspapers  and  magazines.  It  will  enable  him  in  business  life  to  appreciate  the  routes, 
tendencies  and  opportunities  of  commerce.  It  will  give  the  agriculturalist  a  broad  knowl- 
edge of  the  conditions  for  crop  production  in  areas  outside  the  sphere  of  his  own  activ- 
ities. It  will  give  the  future  engineer  information  concerning  the  structure,  forces  and 
processes  of  nature,  which  will  enable  him  intelligently  to  utilize  or  cope  with  her  various 
conditions.  That  the  laboratory  study  of  geography  has  an  intense  human  interest  can 
not,  therefore,  be  denied.  This  human  interest  appertains,  in  a  certain  measure,  also,  to 
mere  textbook  study  of  geography  of  the  advanced  sort.  On  the  other  hand,  laboratory 
instruction  in  geography  specifically  compels  a  training  in  observation  and  deduction  in 
exactly  those  things  that  constitute  the  immediate  and  ever  present  environment  of  every 
human  being.  Lack  of  accurate  observation  has  been  said  to  be  at  once  the  mark  and  the 
curse  of  American  student  habit;  and  this  lack  is  necessarily  accompanied  by  an  almost  com- 
plete non-use  of  the  deductive  faculties.  Laboratory  instruction  in  other  subjects  besides 
geography  may  be  directed  toward  overcoming  these  deficiencies  of  American  education; 
but  in  no  other  case  can  it  apply  so  broadly  to  the  whole  future  life  work  of  the  student 
as  to  that  study  which  teaches  him  to  observe  the  phenomena  of  the  world  in  which  he  lives,  and 
to  reason  on  the  controlling  factors  of  his  own  environment. 

Elaborate  Equipment  not  Essential.— We  may  revert  next  to  the  second  part  of  the 
original  question :  Can  such  training  be  made  both  practical  and  interesting  to  the  average 


student  without  elaborately  equipped  laboratories  and  specially  trained  teachers?  It  can. 
Laboratory  geography  manuals  and  laboratory  geography  teaching  in  general,  have,  in  the 
past,  suffered  from  two  defects;  incoherent  and  unsystematic  presentation  of  the  various  topics, 
and  the  requirement  of  too  much  time  on  the  part  of  both  the  student  and  the  teacher  in 
mastering  the  mechanical  routine  and  technical  detail  of  the  experiments  and  exercises 
available.  No  small  part  of  the  latter  was  the  necessity  of  rewriting  the  questions  set  in  the 
manuals  and  their  incorporation  in  the  answers  in  order  that  these  answers  might  be 
intelligible. 

Furthermore,  the  exercises  of  previous  manuals  are  largely  devoted  to  experiments 
in  earth  physics  and  earth  chemistry,  and  to  a  study  of  the  systematic  development  of  land 
forms.  These  things  lack  human  interest,  often  demand  expensive  apparatus  in  the  school, 
and  laboratory  technique  of  a  special  kind  of  the  teacher.  It  is  easy  to  see  why  such  work 
is  commonly  distasteful  and  irksome  to  the  student,  and  why  some  schools  and  teachers 
hesitate,  or  find  it  impossible,  to  attempt  such  instruction. 

The  Average  Teacher  Competent  to  give  Laboratory  Instruction  with  the  Tarr  and  von 
Engeln  Manual. — In  the  present  manual  all  these  defects  and  difficulties  have  been  met. 
The  determining  factor  in  the  question  of  incorporating  or  excluding  an  exercise,  or  planning 
its  content,  has  been  the  strength  of  its  human  interest,  the  "  everydayness "  of  its  ap- 
plication to  the  affairs  of  the  ordinary  citizen.  Thus  the  knowledge  gained  is  practical  in 
the  best  sense  of  the  word  and  the  interest  of  the  student  is  always  keen.  The  exercises  follow 
one  another  in  a  logical  order  and  are  systematically  grouped  under  appropriate  general 
topics.  Yet,  as  occasion  demands,  exercises  may  be  omitted,  without  destroying  the  se- 
quence; and  it  is  extremely  easy  for  capable  and  enthusiastic  teachers  to  change  the  order 
of  the  exercises,  to  add  other  material  of  their  own  devising,  to  infuse  the  work,  generally, 
with  the  spirit  of  their  own  personalities.  On  the  other  hand,  the  directions  accompanying 
the  exercises  are  so  explicit,  that  with  the  help  of  this  guide,  any  teacher  capable  of  presenting 
an  advanced  text  in  geography,  can  also,  with  facility,  conduct  the  laboratory  work  outlined  in 
the  manual. 

Cost  of  Equipment  a  Negligible  Factor. — The  cost  in  equipment  needed  by  the  pupil 
and  the  school  has  been  reduced  to  an  extremely  low  minimum,  as  will  be  seen  on  consulting 
the  list  of  required  material  given  in  this  guide,  so  low,  in  fact,  as  to  be  a  negligible  factor. 
The  mechanical  make-up  of  the  manual  is  such  that  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  student's 
time  is  required  for  setting  down  results.  By  far  the  major  part  of  his  effort  is  directed  to 
getting  the  results — to  training  in  observation  and  deduction.  The  work  thus  becomes  dis- 
tinctly laboratory  work  and  not  essay  writing  under  the  delusion  that  laboratory  work  is  being  done. 

Laboratory  geography  teaching,  therefore,  as  outlined  above,  is  practical,  it  develops 
the  explanatory  side  of  the  subject,  has  a  wide  human  interest,  gives  a  superior  and  con- 
sistent training  in  observation  and  deduction,  costs  little  to  introduce  in  the  school  and 
requires  no  special  training  of  the  teacher. 

"HOW?" 
OR  THE 

CONTENT,  MAKE-UP  AND  SPECIFIC  METHODS  OF  A 

LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY  MANUAL  CONFORMING 

TO  THE  REQUIREMENTS  INDICATED. 

Content  of  the  Manual. — The  value  of  any  school  course  depends  primarily  on  its 
content,  and  after  that  on  the  method  of  its  presentation. 

The  Exercises  of  the  present  manual  are  grouped  under  six  heads : 

The  World  as  a  Whole 

Minerals,  Rocks  and  Soil 

Making  and  Interpretation  of  Topographic  Maps 

Physiography  of  the  Lands 

The  Ocean 

The  Atmosphere 


4  A  GUIDE  FOR  LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY  -TEACHING 

Development  of  a  Geographic  Consciousness  in  the  Student. — In  the  section  on  the 
World  as  a  Whole,  the  fundamental  concepts  of  the  form,  size  and  movements  of  the  earth, 
of  direction  and  location,  are  made  realities  to  the  student,  by  proposing  problems  in  them 
the  solving  of  which  is  within  the  scope  of  his  intellectual  development.  The  student  is 
also  led  to  appreciate  the  ways  and  means  of  giving  concrete  expression  and  representation 
in  miniature  to  concepts  which  are  world-wide  in  their  extension.  From  a  good  map  there 
may  be  gleaned  in  a  few  minutes  a  multitude  of  facts  and  relationships,  the  presentation  of 
which  in  words  would  require  many  pages.  Therefore,  expertness  and  sureness  in  map  read- 
ing, and  a  knowledge  of  the  possibilities  and  limitations  of  map  making,  are  first  essentials  to 
the  development  of  a  geographic  consciousness.  And  to  know  maps  one  must  work  with  maps; 
a  glance  at  them  as  illustrations  in  the  pages  of  a  textbook  helps  little.  The  atlas  habit, 
acquired  by  a  real  knowledge  of  maps,  is  a  mark  of  the  successful  man  of  affairs.  In  this 
respect  the  Germans,  as  a  nation,  are  much  in  advance  of  us.  The  teacher  should  be  sure 
to  read  Mr.  Cyrus  C.  Adams'  article  in  Harper's  Magazine  for  January,  1912,  p.  237,  en- 
titled: Maps  and  Map-Making. 

Intimate  Relation  of  Human  Life  to  the  Composition  of  the  Earth. — The  second  section 
is  devoted  to  Minerals,  Rocks  and  Soil.  The  food  we  eat  and  the  clothes  we  wear 
both  have  their  origin  in  the  soil.  This,  in  turn,  is  derived  from  the  solid  rock  which,  at 
varying  depths,  everywhere  underlies  the  soil.  An  appreciation  of  the  activities  of  man  and 
the  natural  conditions  that  control  and  direct  his  industries  and  manufactures,  calls  for  a 
first  hand  acquaintance  with  the  raw  materials  making  up  the  structure  of  the  earth.  It 
so  happens  that  a  comparatively  few  substances  make  up  the  great  bulk  of  the  earth's  mass, 
and  a  comparatively  few  ores,  again,  are  of  basic  importance  to  industry.  Every  intelligent 
person  should  know,  at  least,  these  several  substances  of  the  inorganic  world. 

The  Significance  of  "  Scenery." — The  exercises  in  the  section  on  The  Physiography  of 
the  Lands  have  a  particular  importance  in  the  content  of  a  laboratory  geography  manual. 

Not  many  years  ago  the  form  and  features  of  the  earth's  surface  were  simply  "scenery," 
which  existed  in  men's  minds  without  reason  or  order.  But,  in  modern  geography,  scenery 
has  been  systematized,  and  it  is  found  that  each  hill  and  each  valley  and  the  broad  plains 
have,  one  and  all,  a  significance  and  life  history  of  their  own.  The  occurrences  and  char- 
acteristics of  each  type  furnish  clues  to  its  past  and  indications  of  its  future.  Scenery  is  not 
distributed  haphazard,  nor  are  its  individual  forms  of  isolated  occurrence.  In  readily 
distinguishable  belts  and  areas,  the  landscape  is  made  up  of  associated  and  related 
features. 

Such  areas  and  belts  constitute  physiographic  provinces,  and  the  boundaries  of  such 
provinces  have  far  more  influence  in  setting  apart  the  various  activities  of  men  than  have 
the  boundaries  of  states  or  nations.  Indeed,  if  a  national  boundary  be  not  also  of  physio- 
graphic significance,  it  has  little  hope  of  permanence,  as  history  has  repeatedly  shown.  Of 
such  physiographic  provinces  the  United  States  has  many  types;  they  range  over  nearly  the 
whole  field  of  possibility.  For  a  correct  understanding  of  the  geography  of  the  United 
States,  a  knowledge  of  these  provinces,  their  extent,  location,  and  characteristics,  is,  therefore, 
of  much  greater  fundamental  importance  to  the  student  than  is  a  knowledge  of  state  boundaries 
and  state  groups.  As  the  physiographic  provinces  vary,  the  pursuits,  occupations  and  in- 
terests of  men  vary;  and  from  this  variation  comes  sectionalism  as  opposed  to  nationalism. 
What  more  significant  field  for  study,  then,  than  that  in  which  facts  and  relationships  are 
vital  to  the  past,  present  and  future  integrity  of  the  nation? 

This  section,  therefore,  (a)  brings  the  various  phenomena  of  the  physical  geography  of 
the  lands  into  intimate  association  with  the  regional  geography  background  of  which  the 
student  has  acquired  a  general  knowledge  in  the  elementary  schools,  and  (b)  enables  the 
student  to  see  the  close  relationship  between  physiographic  conditions  and  human  activities; 
in  other  words,  how  man  responds  to  his  environment. 

The  Ocean  as  a  Highway  of  Commerce. — In  the  section  on  The  Ocean,  also,  emphasis 
has  been  put  on  the  human  relationships.  For  our  civilization  is  conditioned  by  oceanic 
phenomena  in  almost  as  great  a  degree  as  by  the  configuration  of  the  land.  Civilization  hinges 


A   GUIDE  FOR  LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY   TEACHING  5 

in  large  measure  on  transportation  possibilities,  and  the  ocean  in  modern  times  has  become 
the  great  highway  of  commerce.  Furthermore,  climate  is  perhaps  less  modified  by  latitude 
than  by  the  position,  character  and  flow  of  ocean  currents.  For  this  reason  it  is  entirely  ap- 
propriate that  some  study  of  oceanic  conditions  be  included,  even  though  the  school  be 
remote  from  any  coast.  In  many  of  the  other  exercises,  also,  the  influence  of  the  oceans 
and  coast  lines  is  touched  upon,  so  that  this  section  serves  to  amplify  observations  and  de- 
ductions made  before  and  after  this  topic  is  taken  up. 

Our  Great  Interest  in  the  Weather. — The  final  section  is  devoted  to  The  Atmosphere, 
and  includes  also  a  summary  study  of  the  climatic  and  other  conditions  which  fix  areal 
limitations  on  organic  life.  To  indicate  the  significance  in  daily  life  of  a  knowledge  of  at- 
mospheric phenomena,  attention  need  only  be  called  to  the  fact  that  our  most  common  and 
casual  conversations  are  given  over  to  weather  discussions.  Yet  how  exceptional  is  the  per- 
son who  can  discuss  the  topic  intelligently  or  interpret  even  the  large  facts  of  the  daily  weather 
maps  which  a  national  bureau  sends,  broadcast,  over  the  country.  In  a  city  environment, 
moreover,  atmospheric  phenomena  are  often  the  only  tangible  natural  manifestations, 
within  the  ken  of  the  student,  on  which  the  activities  of  men  have  not  put  a  permanent 
mark.  It  is  only  natural,  therefore,  that  a  large  part  of  laboratory  geography  study  in 
large  cities  is  devoted  to  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  causes  and  consequences  of  atmos- 
pheric disturbances.  Ample  consideration  is,  therefore,  given,  in  the  present  manual,  to 
exercises  which  will  promote  an  intelligent  understanding  of  sunshine  and  precipitation, 
winds,  temperature,  and  climate. 

Make-Up  and  Specific  Teaching  Method  of  the  Manual. — The  manual  is  supplied  to 
pupils  in  two  distinct  bindings.  The  inner  volume  is  bound  into  the  outer  cover  with 
brass  staples.  The  teacher  should  note  that  these  are  passed  through  the  folds  of  the  cover 
from  the  back  side  to  the  front,  and  should  direct  students  to  use  this  method  in  rebinding 
completed  exercises. 

On  beginning  work  the  student  should  be  directed  to  remove  the  inner  volume  from 
the  outer  cover,  preserving  the  brass  staples. 

The  inner  volume  should  then  be  opened  at  the  beginning  of  the  exercise  to  which  the 
period  is  to  be  devoted.  The  pages  of  this  exercise  are  to  be  carefully  torn  out  along  the 
line  of  perforations,  near  the  binding  edge.  (Use  a  ruler  edge  as  a  guide  in  tearing).  Then 
the  inner  volume  may  be  laid  aside  for  the  time  being.  The  loose  sheets  of  the  desired 
exercise  are  thus  freely  available  for  the  student's  use  without  encumbrance  by  the  bulk  of 
the  rest  of  the  manual. 

At  the  head  of  each  exercise  is  a  title,  a  list  of  the  materials  required  and  a  specific 
statement  as  to  the  purpose  of  the  study.  This  last  is  often  supplemented  by  an  introductory 
statement.  Thus  there  can  be  no  haziness  in  the  student's  mind  as  to  the  nature  of  the  work 
about  to  be  attempted. 

The  feature  which  will  first  attract  attention  is  the  leaving  of  space  after  each  question 
in  which  the  student  is  to  write  the  answer.  This  serves  a  double  purpose.  It  insures  the 
student's  following  the  argument  of  the  outline  and  his  appreciation  of  every  point  by  per- 
sonal observation  and  deduction.  In  the  second  place  this  plan  very  materially  lightens  the 
labor  of  the  overworked  science  teacher  in  inspecting  the  work  of  students.  There  is  a  place 
for  every  answer  and  every  answer  should  be  in  its  place.  Any  incompleteness  is  readily  detected, 
as  is  also  the  correctness  of  the  student's  interpretations.  Furthermore,  the  time  of  the 
student  is  conserved  for  the  actual  observations,  inasmuch  as  there  is  no  need  for  the  labo- 
rious rewriting  of  questions  in  order  to  make  the  disconnected  answers  coherent.  Additional 
material  presented  by  the  teacher  may  easily  be  inserted  after  any  exercise;  accordingly, 
the  exercises  may  vary  considerably  in  different  localities  to  insure  a  fuller  understand- 
ing of  local  conditions. 

Completeness  of  the  Manual. — Another  feature  which  we  feel  sure  will  meet  with 
general  approval  is  the  insertion  of  all  maps,  figures,  diagrams,  and  tables  needed,  in  the  pages 
of  the  manual,  and  in  most  cases  at  the  exact  place  where  they  are  to  be  used.  An  ample 
supply  of  cross-section  paper  is  included  at  the  back  ,of  the  volume. 


6  A   GUIDE  FOR  LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY   TEACHING 

By  allowing  a  space  for  the  pupil's  answer,  and  by  providing  a  protractor,  spaces  for 
drawing  and  cross-section  paper,  much  expense  ordinarily  attached  to  a  laboratory  study 
is  saved  the  pupil;  for  the  manual  is  at  once  a  manual,  a  note  book  and  equipment  for  study. 

After  the  student  has  completed  the  first  exercise  assigned,  he  is  to  remove  one  of  the 
Index  pages  at  the  front  of  the  volume,  fill  in  the  title  of  the  exercise  and  the  date  at  which 
it  was  completed,  and  then  bind  this  page  with  the  pages  of  the  exercise,  in  their  proper 
order,  in  the  outside  cover  furnished  with  the  manual,  using  the  brass  staples  provided. 
Thus  completed  and  bound,  the  exercise  is  to  be  handed  to  the  teacher  for  inspection,  cor- 
rection, and  marking.  Succeeding  exercises  are  to  be  similarly  indexed,  and  bound  with 
the  first  one.  Thus  the  teacher  is  only  required  to  lift  and  handle  the  bulk  of  the  completed 
exercises  instead  of  the  total  weight  of  all  the  manuals  used  by  the  class,  as  is  the  case  with 
many  other  laboratory  texts. 

Provision  for  the  Introduction  of  Original  and  Supplemental  Material. — It  is  not  ex- 
pected that  any  one  class  will  have  time  to  complete  all  the  exercises  of  the  manual.  The  teacher 
should  make  a  judicious  choice,  selecting  those  which  best  fit  in  with  the  requirements  of 
the  State  Syllabus,  if  one  is  issued;  as  in  such  instructions  special  emphasis  is  usually  put 
on  subjects  which  have  the  greatest  local  interest.  Where  no  syllabus  is  published,  the 
local  interest,  or  the  teacher's  own  special  interests  in  the  subject  should  be  given  preference. 
It  will  probably  be  wise  in  many  cases  to  supplement  exercises  on  certain  topics  by  others  of 
the  teacher's  own  devising.  The  pages  of  the  manual  are  punched  to  conform  with  that 
of  the  regulation  8"  x  10"  loose  leaf,  note  book  paper,  in  general  use  throughout  the  country. 
This  makes  it  very  feasible  to  introduce  additional  material. 

Logical  Sequence  of  Topics  and  Flexibility  of  the  Manual. — The  exercises  follow  each 
other  in  a  logical  order.  They  permit,  however,  (a)  transposition  of  the  larger  sections, 
i.  e.,  The  Atmosphere  and  The  Ocean  may  be  studied  before  the  Physiography  of  the  Lands 
is  taken  up;  and  (b),  in  most  places  the  omission  of  exercises  with  no  essential  loss  of 
sequence. 

It  is  not  intended  that  each  exercise  should  constitute  the  work  of  a  single  period.  The 
length  of  periods  varies  in  different  schools.  In  certain  exercises  it  may  be  advantageous 
to  permit  students  to  do  part  of  the  work  at  other  than  the  regular  class  period.  The  av- 
erage exercise  will  require  about  one  and  one  half  hours  time  for  completion.  Some  are 
shorter,  others  are  longer.  The  object  in  view  in  planning  them  has  not  been  to  conform  to  any 
specific  time  period,  but  to  teach  each  topic  systematically  and  convincingly. 

Require  the  students  to  tear  out  the  sheets  of  the  exercises  only  as  directed  by  you.  To 
write  neatly,  with  ink.  To  write  answers  as  complete  phrases  or  sentences,  except  where 
a  simple  yes  or  no,  or  a  clear  abbreviation  will  suffice.  To  answer  the  questions  and  do  the 
work  required  in  the  sequence  of  the  exercise.  To  bind  each  completed  exercise  in  the  cover 
provided,  and  index  it  with  date  of  completion.  To  hand  in  the  completed  bound  exercises 
periodically  for  your  inspection,  criticism  and  correction. 

Require  the  student,  after  having  a  completed  and  corrected  exercise  returned  to  him, 
to  review  its  content — Purpose,  Questions,  Answers  and  Diagrams,  in  order  that  he  may 
get  a  definite  concept  of  the  purport  of  the  whole. 

SUGGESTIONS  IN  REGARD  TO  THE  DIFFERENT  TOPICS 
AND  PARTICULAR  EXERCISES. 

The  Earth  as  a  Whole.  Exercise  L— Shape  and  Size  of  the  Earth.  An  apple  slightly 
flattened  at  the  stem  and  bud  areas,  whose  surface  is  otherwise  fairly  spherical,  is  the  most 
readily  available  object  which  will  give  students  a  definite  conception  of  the  form  of  an 
oblate  spheroid.  Their  attention  may,  also,  be  incidentally  called  to  the  fact  that  there  is 
an  analogy  between  the  hollows  and  other  irregularities  on  the  surface  of  the  apple  and  the 
earth's  surface  with  its  continents,  mountains  and  ocean  basins. 

If  the  school  is  situated  near  a  large  body  of  water,  the  curvature  of  the  earth's  surface 
may  be  convincingly  demonstrated  by  the  use  of  a  field  glass.  Only  the  rigging  of  a  distant 
ship  is  visible.  Focus  the  glass  on  the  rigging.  When  this  is  sharp  and  clear  in  the  field 


A   GUIDE  FOR  LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY   TEACHING  7 

glass,  lower  the  glass  to  the  line  of  the  water  surface  where  this  crosses  the  ship,  and  it  will 
be  noted  that  this  line  and  the  adjacent  sea  surf  age  are  out  of  focus.  Focus  on  the  line  of 
the  water  surface,  and  then  the  ship's  rigging  will  be  out  of  focus.  This  is  explained  by  the 
fact  that  the  line  of  the  water  surface,  which  cuts  the  lower  parts  of  the  ship  from  view,  is 
located  at  a  point  somewhere  near  half  way  (depending  on  the  elevation  of  the  observer's 
viewpoint  above  sea  level)  the  distance  between  the  observer  and  the  ship.  This  experi- 
ment is  also  possible  on  some  parts  of  the  level  Dakota  plains. 

Exercise  II. — World  Maps.  This  exercise  is  important  because  so  few  students  have 
a  definite  conception  as  to  the  significance  of  the  scale  of  a  map.  As  a  class  room  demon- 
stration it  is  worth  while  to  have  a  map  of  Europe  and  one  of  the  United  States  of  the  same 
actual  size  of  sheet,  and  contrast  these  maps  with  maps  of  each  of  these  areas  on  the  same 
scale.  A  good  school  globe  serves  even  better  for  this  latter  purpose. 

Exercise  III. — Map  Construction.  If  possible  supplement  the  discussion  of  areal 
distortion  on  world  maps,  by  obtaining  some  cheap  world  maps  on  different  projections  and 
cutting  out  from  these  certain  countries.  Then  superimpose  these  cut  outs  on  each  other 
to  demonstrate  the  distortion.  The  globe  may  be  used  to  show  the  true  shape.  If  maps 
sufficiently  inexpensive  to  permit  cutting  up  are  not  available,  the  same  end  may  be  at- 
tained by  tracing  the  outlines  of  certain  countries  from  wall  maps  of  the  world,  or  from  maps 
in  large  atlases. 

Exercise  IV. — The  Mercator  Map.  A  large  part  of  the  value  of  work  of  this  kind 
is  in  its  teaching  of  accuracy  and  exactness.  To  insure  this,  students  should  have  pencils 
of  medium  hardness  and  the  teacher  should  insist  on  the  pencils  being  sharply  pointed. 
Rulers  should  be  of  good  grade  with  fine  scale  divisions. 

Exercise  V. — Determination  of  Direction,  of  Latitude  and  Longitude.  The  teacher 
should  secure  a  copy  of  W.  E.  Johnson's  "Mathematical  Geography",  American  Book 
Company.  It  is  an  inexpensive  volume  and  contains  many  illuminating  paragraphs  on 
mathematical  geography.  It  serves  well  as  a  volume  for  "outside  reading"  by  members  of 
the  class  while  this  subject  is  being  taught,  and  for  this  purpose  the  school  library  may 
well  possess  a  number  of  copies. 

Among  other  things,  devices  are  described  which  will  give  more  accurate  results  in 
latitude  and  longitude  determinations  than  the  very  simple  apparatus  utilized  in  the  ex- 
ercises. Several  of  these  devices  are  simple  enough  to  admit  of  construction  and  use  by  in- 
genious and  enthusiastic  teachers.  A  detailed  discussion  of  necessary  corrections  to  be 
applied  to  readings  is  also  given. 

The  following  construction  will  serve  as  a  check  on  the  determination  of  the  N.  and  S. 
line  by  the  shortest  shadow.  With  your  vertical  rod  as  a  center  draw  a  circle  with  a  radius 
approximately  3  times  the  height  of  the  rod.  At  some  time  in  the  forenoon  the  end  of  the 
shadow  will  cross  the  circumference  of  the  circle.  Mark  the  point  where  it  first  just  touches 
the  circle.  Do  the  same  in  the  afternoon  as  the  sun  leaves  the  circle.  Connect  these  two 
points  by  a  straight  line.  This  line  will  be  due  east  and  west  and  should  cross  your  north 
and  south  line  at  exactly  right  angles. 

Exercise  VI. — Rotation  and  its  Effects.  Determine  as  nearly  as  possible  the  exact 
longitude  of  your  school,  especially  if  you  are  located  at  some  distance  to  the  east  or  west 
of  the  central  meridians  of  the  time  belts. 

Put  special  emphasis  on  the  difference  between  the  true,  local  time  and  the  standard 
time  in  use,  and  the  reason  for  the  amount  of  difference.  Call  attention,  also,  to  such 
possibilities  as  the  printing  of  European  news,  in  the  local  morning  newspapers,  of  events 
which  occur  in  the  morning  of  the  same  day,  possibly  at  the  same  apparent  hour  that  the 
paper  is  being  read. 

In  illuminating  the  globe  arrange  a  shade  over  the  source  of  light  so  that  the  rays  come 
from  one  direction  and  are  as  nearly  parallel  as  possible.  Otherwise,  it  will  be  difficult  to 
get  sharply  defined  shadows.  Pay  especial  attention  to  the  purport  of  the  "Notes  to 
teacher"  included  in  the  text  of  the  exercise. 

Exercise  VII. — The  Seasons.  In  the  second  paragraph  of  this  exercise  a  "Demon- 
stration" by  the  teacher  is  called  for.  This  consists  in  carrying  a  globe  around  a  central 
source  of  light  (to  represent  the  sun),  maintaining  the  axis  of  the  globe  at  a  constant  in- 
clination of  23^/2°,  and  pointing  in  a  constant  direction,  so  that  all  positions  of  the  axis  are 


8  A   GUIDE  FOR  LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY  TEACHING 

parallel  to  each  other.  Carry  the  globe  around  in  a  counter  clockwise  direction.  Special 
attention  should  be  called  to  the  Summer  Solstice,  Winter  Solstice,  Vernal  Equinox  and 
Autumnal  Equinox  positions. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  paragraph  opposite  the  marginal  topic  " Summer  Season",  is  a 
question — "Where  will  a  shadow  be  longest  when  it  is  midsummer  (June  21)  in  the  northern 
hemisphere?"  The  answer  is,  Just  to  the  north  of  the  Antarctic  Circle.  At  the  Antarctic 
Circle  the  sun  would  theoretically  be  just  on  the  horizon  at  midday,  when  it  is  midsummer  in 
the  northern  hemisphere.  Therefore,  a  shadow  would  be  projected  into  space.  Actually,  re- 
fraction would  "lift  up"  the  sun  enough  so  that  a  shadow  would  be  cast  on  the  earth  to  the 
south.  However,  just  to  the  north  of  the  Antarctic  Circle  would  satisfy  the  question  both 
practically  and  theoretically. 

Summary. — The  subject  of  mathematical  geography  is  difficult  even  when  put  in  the  simple 
terms  of  the  above  exercises.  Yet  these  phenomena  play  so  great  a  part  in  governing  the 
large  and  small  concerns  of  all  life  that  the  teacher  should  make  a  heroic  effort  to  impart  to 
each  student  definite,  clear-cut,  conceptions  of  at  least  the  few,  fundamental  facts  given 
in  these  exercises  on  The  Earth  as  a  Whole.  The  paragraphs  in  smaller  type  may,  however, 
well  be  omitted  where  time  is  limited;  or  where  it  is  felt  that  the  students  are  not  sufficiently 
mature  to  profit  by  a  longer  study  of  these  topics. 

Minerals,  Rocks  and  Soil.  General. — This  subject  has  a  place  in  geography  study  in  so 
far  as  it  helps  to  an  understanding  of  the  materials  composing  the  earth's  outer  shell,  and 
their  behavior  under  the  various  alteration  processes  to  which  they  are  subjected  and  the 
uses  to  which  the  substances,  in  bulk,  are  put  by  man.  An  extensive  treatment  of  indi- 
vidual mineral  and  rock  species  and  types  would  not  be  apropos.  Therefore,  only  those 
substances  which  comprise  a  large  proportion  of  the  earth's  surface  material,  and  such  as 
have  had  the  greatest  bearing  on  the  human  occupation  of  the  land  receive  attention  in 
this  manual.  In  regions  where  mining  or  smelting  is  a  dominant  industry,  it  is  suggested 
that  in  addition  to  the  minerals  used  in  the  exercises,  others,  peculiar  to  the  region,  be 
studied,  along  the  same  lines.  Additional  blank  pages  may  readily  be  inserted  in  the  manual 
for  a  record  of  the  student's  study  of  such  additional  material. 

Mineral  Collections  Made  by  Students. — The  students  should  be  encouraged  to  be- 
come thoroughly  familiar  with  the  different  specimens  by  frequent  handling  of  them.  This 
is  the  only  way  in  which  a  permanent,  interesting  acquaintance  with  them  can  be  acquired. 
If  possible  permit  the  specimens  to  be  carried  home  for  further  examination.  Often  students 
are  willing  to  pay  the  cost  of  sets  of  small  specimens  as  nuclei  of  personally  owned  collec- 
tions. The  collecting  habit  is  strong  in  youth  and  the  possession  of  a  small  set  of  representative 
specimens  may  lead  to  an  extended,  independent,  personal  study  of  minerals  and  rocks  by 
some  students.  A  copy  of  the  volume  Rocks  and  Rock  Minerals  by  L.  V.  Pirsson,  Wiley 
and  Sons,  Publishers,  ought  to  be  in  the  school  library. 

Exercises  VIII,  IX,  X. — Minerals.  During  the  study  of  these  exercises  the  teacher 
should  conduct  a  demonstration  and  experiments  at  the  lecture  desk,  to  illustrate  crystalli- 
zation from  solutions.  Make  a  saturated,  hot  solution  of  salt,  in  a  glass  beaker,  suspend  a 
cotton  string  in  it  and  allow  the  solution  to  cool  very  slowly.  Fairly  large  crystals  should 
form.  Cool  a  similar  solution  suddenly.  The  fine  powder  resulting  illustrates  the  tendency 
to  develop  an  amorphous  mass.  Evaporate,  slowly,  a  cold  solution  of  alum  and  salt  and 
note  the  differences  in  the  shapes  of  the  crystals  of  the  different  substances.  The  chemistry 
teacher  will  no  doubt  be  able  to  suggest  and  provide  a  little  material  for  similar  experiments; 
possibly  with  salts  which  will  give  more  spectacular  results  than  the  common  ones  suggested 
above.  From  such  visible  demonstrations  of  crystallization  the  students  will  be  able  to 
carry  the  conception  over  into  the  larger  realm  of  the  mineral  world. 

Exercise  X. — At  the  conclusion  of  this  exercise,  the  teacher  should  distribute  to  each 
student  three,  or  more,  unnamed  and  unnumbered  specimens  and  require  the  student  to 
identify  them.  A  written  test  is  best,  in  which  should  be  required  reasons  for  the  identifica- 
tion, what  other  minerals  the  specimen  resembles,  and  how  it  can  be  distinguished  from 
them. 

Exercises  XI,  XII,  XIII. — Rocks.     Perhaps  the  most  generally  practicable  excursion 


A   GUIDE  FOR  LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY   TEACHING  9 

for  classes  in  laboratory  geography  is  one  to  study  minerals,  and,  more  particularly, 
rocks,  either  in  their  natural  outcrops  or  in  structures  erected  by  man.  Such  an  excursion, 
moreover,  evokes  keen  interest  on  the  part  of  the  class.  Identification  of  the  substances 
seen,  uses  to  which  they  are  put,  their  relative  desirability,  their  local  source,  are  some  of  the 
topics  which  may  be  taken  up.  Especially  worth  while  is  a  study  of  the  effects  of  weathering 
on  different  rocks.  Weathering  phenomena  teach  convincingly  that  the  rocks  of  the  earth's 
surface  are  constantly  crumbling  and  that,  therefore,  the  "eternal  hills"  are  far  from  eternal. 
Unless  one  has  prejudices,  a  cemetery,  especially  an  old  one,  is  a  particularly  favorable 
place  to  make  such  a  study  of  weathering;  as  the  dates  on  the  headstones  give  fairly  accu- 
rate data  as  to  the  time  period  the  stones  have  been  exposed.  Quite  a  variety  of  rocks 
will  be  found. 

Exercise  XIV. — The  Soil.  This  is  one  of  the  subjects  of  which  a  more  extended  study 
may  be  desirable;  as  e.  g.  in  an  agricultural  district  or  with  a  class  of  students  in  agriculture. 
Suggestions  for  additional  laboratory  work  along  this  line  may  be  secured  from  Lyon  and 
Fippin's  volume  entitled  "The  Principles  of  Soil  Management"  —  Macmillan  Company, 
1909. 

Making  and  Interpretation  of  Topographic  Maps.  Exercise  XV. — Construction  of  an 
Areal  Map.  There  should  be  available  for  use  in  this  exercise  a  large  rectangular  table. 
Or  there  may  be  substituted  a  platform  of  boards  laid  on  two  carpenter's  trestles.  A  base- 
ment room  may  be  utilized,  especially  if  it  has  a  cemented  floor.  If  the  weather  is  suitable 
the  exercise  may  well  be  conducted  out  of  doors. 

On  the  top  of  the  table,  or  platform,  an  ideal  land  form  of  some  topographic  diversity 
should  be  modeled,  of  molder's  sand,  preferably,  though  sand,  or  a  mixture  of  sand  and 
clay,  will  serve  the  purpose. 

Include  a  conical  mountain  (volcanic  cone)  occurring  in  a  trough  between  two  moun- 
tain ridges,  whose  average  elevation  is  lower  than  that  of  the  conical  mountain.  The  conical 
mountain  should  rise  some  12  to  18  inches  above  the  level  of  the  table  top.  The  elevations 
and  size  of  the  other  relief  features  should  be  proportioned  to  the  size  of  this  cone.  Model 
the  mountain  ridges  at  one  edge  of  the  land  form.  From  their  inland  face  model  a  plateau- 
plain.  Let  this  be  slightly  varied  in  feature  by  the  introduction  of  slight  escarpments, 
canyon  valley  trenches  (near  the  mountains),  open  valleys,  mesa  forms,  low  hills,  etc.  As 
the  table  top  represents  the  ocean  level  of  the  land  form,  fashion  bays  and  capes  where  the 
plain  meets  the  ocean  level. 

Give  suggestive  names  to  the  more  prominent  points,  features  and  areas.  These 
names  may  be  lettered  on  the  wooden  markers  used  by  florists  to  label  potted  plants.  It 
may  help  the  realism  to  locate  rivers,  a  city  site,  roads,  railroads,  etc.  Avoid,  however, 
attempting  anything  too  elaborate  for  the  time  at  your  students'  disposal.  At  best,  it  will 
be  possible  to  locate  only  a  few  points  accurately.  From  the  location  of  these,  others  can 
be  sketched  in.  Indeed,  this  corresponds  to  actuai  field  mapping  procedure.  In  every  class 
there  will  be  found  a  few  students  who  take  delight  in  such  work  as  this,  and  who  will  devote 
extra  time  of  their  own  to  make  their  maps  distinctive  and  individually  complete.  Such 
students  should  be  encouraged,  as  a  natural  talent  for  a  future  life  work  may  be  given 
stimulus  by  such  practice. 

Encourage,  also,  such  students  as  show  a  natural  aptitude  for  lettering,  to  "print  in" 
the  various  place  names,  etc.,  on  the  map.  Let  the  others  write  them  neatly,  in  small 
script. 

If  this  exercise  is  omitted  special  stress  should  be  laid  in  other  parts  of  the  work  on 
teaching  the  reading  of  scale,  orienting  maps,  etc. 

Exercise  XVI. — Construction  of  a  Contour  Map  with  Land  Model.  One  of  the  blocks 
or  boxes  used  in  this  exercise  should  be  so  much  lower  than  the  contour  interval  adopted, 
that,  when  the  rectangular  pointer  is  laid  upon  it,  the  tip  of  the  pointer  will  be  exactly  the 
space  of  the  contour  interval  above  the  platform.  //  the  room  and  materials  for  Exercise  XV 
are  not  available,  the  following  scheme  may  be  substituted  for  Exercise  XVI.  Use  the  blank 
sheet  of  paper  preceding  Exercise  XV.  Draw  on  the  board  an  areal  map  essentially  like 
Fig.  13  (Exercise  XVII)  of  the  manual,  but  omit  the  contour  lines.  In  their  place  substitute 
figures  giving  the  elevation  of  the  land  at  a  number  of  points  in  the  area.  Instead  of  one 


10  A   GUIDE  FOR  LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY   TEACHING 

inch,  as  in  Fig.  13,  call  the  contour  interval  one  hundred  feet,  and  assume  the  horizontal 
scale  to  be  one  foot  to  the  mile,  or  whatever  may  seem  most  suitable.  Do  not  give  all  the 
elevations  in  multiples  of  the  contour  interval,  but  put  in  some  as  270  feet,  330  feet,  etc. 
Have  the  students  copy  the  areal  map  and  these  figures  on  the  blank  sheet  of  paper  and 
then  direct  the  drawing  in  of  the  contour  lines.  The  horizontal  scales  of  their  maps  will 
necessarily  be  reduced,  and  the  contours  they  draw  correspondingly  more  closely  spaced. 
Most  of  the  questions  of  Exercise  XVI,  as  given,  will  be  pertinent  to  this  substitute  plan 
also,  and  should  be  answered  by  the  pupils. 

Exercise  XVII. — Making  a  Cross  Section  of  a  Contour  Map.  The  teacher  who  has  not 
had  experience  in  making  such  cross  sections  should  very  conscientiously  study  and  complete 
this  exercise,  personally,  before  the  class  attempts  it.  A  second's  demonstration  of  method,  on 
some  little  point,  will  help  a  pupil  more  than  pages  of  printed  directions.  Therefore,  the 
teacher  should  be  alive  to  the  little  technical  details  which  make  all  the  difference  between 
characterless  and  admirable  results. 

Turn  to  the  examples  of  cross  sections  reproduced  at  the. back  of  this  pamphlet,  for 
suggestions  as  to  details  of  finish,  and  require  like  neatness  of  completion  on  part  of  the 
students. 

Physiography  of  the  Lands.  Exercise  XIX. — Processes  of  Erosion  and  Deposition. 
To  carry  out  this  exercise  a  rather  large  sink  ( =  a  rectangular  tank)  should  be  available. 
One  3x4  feet  is  a  minimum  size,  while  one  8  feet  square  is  very  desirable.  It  should  be 
lined  with  galvanized  iron,  and  should  be  from  6  to  12  inches  deep.  An  outlet  for  the  water 
should  be  provided  at  the  bottom,  and  others,  at  various  depths,  at  one  side,  so  that  by  the 
use  of  wooden  plugs  the  water  level  can  be  held  at  a  certain  depth. 

In  this  sink  a  land  form  of  simple  topography  should  be  built  up.  On  one  side  it  should 
have  a  plain  of  considerable  area  sloping  down  gently  into  the  water,  and  the  whole  form 
should  be  so  built  up  that  the  drainage  from  its  surface  will  almost  all  flow  over  this  plain. 
Allow  a  considerable  width  of  water  in  front  of  the  plain,  between  it  and  the  end  of  the 
sink,  so  that  there  may  be  room  for  the  formation  of  a  delta.  Beyond  the  shore  line,  the  front 
of  the  plain  should  slope  off  to  the  bottom  of  the  sink  with  some  steepness,  but  not  fall  off 
too  abruptly,  else  too  great  an  amount  of  material  will  need  to  be  brought  down  by  the 
streams  before  deltas  can  form  typically. 

The  surface  portion,  4  or  5  inches  in  thickness  at  least,  of  the  land  model,  should  be 
built  of  molder's  sand  and  powdered  clay  in  alternate  layers.  The  powdered  clay  may  be 
obtained  from  a  pressed  brick  manufacturing  plant.  Have  it  shipped  by  freight  if  neces- 
sary. Have  the  clay  layers  quite  thin,  one  half  inch  deep  on  the  average,  or  even 
less. 

Let  there  be  some  variety  to  the  topography  of  the  more  elevated  parts  of  the  model. 
But  do  not  attempt  too  great  complexity.  Shallow  depressions  on  the  plain  surface  will 
give  rise  to  consequent  lakes.  If  the  clay  layers  are  not  sufficiently  resistant  to  cause  water- 
falls, plaster  of  Paris  in  extremely  thin  layers,  put  on  dry,  over  scattered  areas,  will  give  the 
desired  result.  Plaster  of  Paris  may  also  be  used  to  advantage,  in  combination  with  sand, 
to  give  firmness  to  the  foundational  parts  of  the  model, — preventing  it  from  slumping  where 
it  extends  under  water.  As  the  model  is  being  built  sprinkle  the  layers  with  sufficient  water 
to  make  them  compactly  moist. 

Since  the  various  processes  will  be  in  progress  simultaneously,  while  the  record  of  them 
needs  to  be  made  in  sequence  in  the  manual,  it  will  be  well  to  have  the  pupils  read  through 
the  whole  exercise  before  the  experiment  begins,  so  that  they  may  be  on  the  alert  for  the 
occurrence  and  progress  of  the  various  phenomena. 

Let  the  spray  have  considerable  volume,  but  let  it  be  very  fine,  so  that  little  or  no  direct 
blow  is  given  by  the  water  particles  as  they  strike  on  the  land  surface.  Distribute  the 
pseudo  rainfall  primarily  on  the  highlands  of  the  model,  but  let  a  considerable  portion  fall, 
also,  on  the  inner,  plains  area. 

Further  details  about  conducting  such  experiments  as  this  will  be  found  in  an  article 
by  Tarr  and  von  Engeln,  Journal  of  Geography,  Vol.  VII,  1908,  pp.  73-85.  (Published  at 
Madison,  Wisconsin,  by  the  University  of  Wisconsin). 

Exercise  XX. — Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Land  Forms.    This  is  a  recitation  exer- 


A   GUIDE  FOR  LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY   TEACHING  11 

else,  and  a  thorough  drilling  in  it  will  greatly  enhance  the  value  and  the  student's  apprecia- 
tion of  the  exercises  which  follow. 

Physiographic  Provinces  and  Human  Occupation  of  the  United  States. — Exercises  XXI 
to  XXXIX,  inclusive.  These  exercises  constitute  a  laboratory  study  of  the  geography  of 
the  United  States  from  a  very  broad  viewpoint.  The  regional,  physiographic,  commercial 
and  industrial  aspects  of  the  subject  are  all  given  attention.  Physiography  is  made  the 
structural  basis  of  the  study,  inasmuch  as  it  is  foundational  to  the  other  phases,  and  largely 
conditions  the  general  environment  and  activities  of  man.  Specialized  study  of  the  develop- 
ment of  land  forms  is  avoided.  It  will  be  better  to  complete  only  a  part  of  each  one  of 
these  exercises  than  to  omit  any. 

The  teacher  should  have  at  hand  a  copy  of  "Forest  Physiography"  by  Professor  I. 
Bowman,  Wiley  and  Sons,  New  York  City,  Publishers.  In  this  are  described  in  detail  the 
various  physiographic  provinces  of  the  United  States.  In  fact  a  more  descriptive  title  for 
this  book  would  be  "Physiographic  Regions  of  the  United  States,  with  especial  reference 
to  their  forest  features."  It  will,  therefore,  serve  as  a  reference  volume  for  both  teacher 
and  students,  and  give  the  clue  to  answers  for  any  questions  whose  purport  may  not  be 
understood  at  once. 

Briefly,  the  scheme  of  the  exercises  is  this.  The  basis  of  the  whole  study  is  a  series  of 
carefully  selected  United  States  Geological  Survey  topographic  maps.  These  have  been 
chosen  to  show  typical  conditions  in  each  of  the  larger  physiographic  provinces  of  the 
United  States.  The  student  accurately  locates  and  outlines  the  position  of  each  sheet  on 
a  map  of  the  United  States.  Then  he  outlines,  on  the  same  map  of  the  United  States,  the 
physiographic  province  of  which  the  sheet  shows  typical  conditions.  By  this  device  he 
gains  a  definite  idea  of  the  location  and  extent  of  the  area  under  consideration.  And  what 
he  learns  later  of  the  physiographic  features,  from  a  detailed  study  of  the  topographic  sheet, 
has  then  a  particular  and  direct  meaning;  for  in  his  previous  regional  study  of  the  states 
he  has  become  familiar  with  these  physiographic  areas  as  political  divisions. 

Next,  taking  up  the  topographic  sheet  itself,  he  is  led  to  consider,  by  a  series  of  sug- 
gestive questions,  the  topographic  features,  the  physiographic  history,  the  climatic  condi- 
tion, and  finally  the  human  responses  of  the  area,  the  last  indicated  by  the  cultural  features. 
The  answers  required  can  almost  all  be  simply  and  directly  inferred  and  deduced  from  a 
study  of  the  maps.  The  exercises  are  a  supplement  to,  rather  than  a  review  of  the  text. 
The  student  finds  himself  eager  to  see  in  what  degree  the  physiographic  and  climatic  conditions 
have  affected  or  influenced  the  human  occupation  of  the  region. 

On  the  purely  physiographic  side,  also,  a  distinct  advance  in  pedagogical  method  has 
been  achieved.  Instead  of  Jumping  from  the  study  of  a  young  river  to,  say,  that  of  a  volcanic 
cone,  as  has  been  the  case  in  other  manuals,  a  systematic  plan  has  been  carried  out.  Young 
rivers  are  studied  in  connection  with  young  plains,  old  rivers  on  old  plains,  and  plains  in 
turn  are  considered  in  successive  stages  in  their  cycle  of  development  from  youth  to  old 
age. 

Only  a  few  general  suggestions  need  be  made  in  regard  to  the  teaching  of  these  exer- 
cises. It  will  be  found  that  students  are  able  to  go  from  one  to  the  next  without  special  in- 
structions, as  the  directions  given  are  clear  and  specific. 

Reproduction  of  Cross  Sections  as  an  Aid  to  the  Teacher. — The  teacher  should  himself 
answer  all  the  questions  of  an  exercise  before  assigning  it  to  the  class.  On  succeeding  pages  of 
this  Guide  are  reproduced  the  series  of  cross  sections  which  are  to  be  drawn.  The  students' 
productions  may  be  compared  with  these  for  correction. 

Use  of  Lantern  Slides  in  Geography  Instruction. — If  lantern  slides  are  available,  pic- 
tures of  the  region  studied  may  be  thrown  on  the  screen  and  a  quiz  recitation  held.  In  the 
opinion  of  the  writer,  this  use  of  lantern  slides,  for  this  subject,  is  by  far  the  best  purpose  which 
they  serve  in  the  schools.  In  this  particular  topic  it  leads  to  a  correlation  between  the  con- 
ceptions gained  by  the  students  from  their  map  studies  of  the  different  regions  of  the  United 
States  and  the  actual  scenes  as  visible  to  the  eye.  Forests,  for  example,  are  not  indicated  on 
the  maps.  A  livelier  interest  is  aroused  in  the  regions  later  studied,  as  there  will  be  a  striv- 


12  A   GUIDE  FOR  LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY   TEACHING 

ing  on  the  part  of  each  pupil  to  form  in  the  mind's  eye  a  true  picture  of  the  region,  which  he 
may  later  confirm  or  find  incorrect  when  viewing  the  pictures  on  the  screen. 

Optional  Use  of  a  Relief  Map  of  the  United  States. — Some  teachers  may  wish  to  use 
the  18"  X  28"  Relief  Map  of  the  U.  S.,  1911  edition,  for  each  student,  in  preference  to  the 
18"  X  28"  Contour  Map.  The  colors  of  the  Relief  Map  interfere  with  the  student's  coloring 
of  the  physiographic  provinces,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  a  great  aid  in  rapidly  out- 
lining these  provinces  on  the  map.  A  few  of  the  Relief  Maps  should,  in  any  case,  be  avail- 
able for  general  class  use. 

Practical  Details. — Have  a  set  of  the  topographic  sheets  that  have  been  studied  to  date, 
hanging  along  the  wall  of  the  laboratory,  arranged  in  the  order  in  which  they  were  taken  up, 

A  couple  of  rubber  stamps  printing  "Vertical  Scale"  and  "Horizontal  Scale"  will  save 
the  students  labor  in  connection  with  the  cross  sections.  The  exercises  are  designed  to  put 
a  premium  on  thinking  and  to  reduce  manual  labor  to  a  minimum. 

Put  three  cross  sections  on  a  page  of  the  cross-section  paper.  See  examples  in  this 
Guide. 

Impress  upon  the  students  that  they  are  not  to  color  the  area  on  the  map  until  directed  in 
the  text  of  the  manual  to  do  so.  In  coloring,  hold  the  pencil  loosely  in  the  hand  and  color 
lightly.  A  heavier  line  of  the  same  color  may  be  run  over  the  original  outline  (which  should 
be  made  with  black  pencil)  of  the  boundaries  of  the  province. 

Mounting  Maps  on  Cloth. — The  topographic  sheets  should  be  mounted  on  cloth  to 
save  wear  and  tear.  This  is  a  very  simple  process.  Secure  some  thin  muslin.  Thoroughly 
wet  it.  Then  spread  it  on  a  flat  surface,  preferably  a  smooth  table  top.  Carefully  smooth 
out  all  wrinkles  and  squeeze  out  surplus  moisture.  You  have  then  a  quite  damp  sheet  of 
cloth  closely  and  smoothly  adhering  to  the  table  top.  On  this  place,  side  by  side,  face  down, 
as  many  of  the  topographic  sheets  as  the  area  will  allow.  Now  spread  stiff,  book-binder's 
paste  uniformly  over  the  whole  of  the  back  of  one  map.  Then  turn  it  over  and  rub  it  down 
firmly,  from  the  center  of  the  map  outward,  on  the  cloth.  Repeat  this  with  the  other  maps 
on  the  sheet.  Allow  them  to  dry.  It  will  be  found  that  sufficient  paste  has  passed  through 
the  meshes  of  the  cloth  to  make  it  adhere  to  the  table  top.  This  obviates  the  need  of  using 
thumb  tacks  to  stretch  the  cloth.  When  dry  the  sheet  of  maps  can  readily  be  removed 
from  the  table  by  pulling  up  on  one  corner  of  the  cloth.  Then  the  maps  should  be  neatly 
trimmed,  using  a  sharp  knife  and  straight  edge. 

The  Ocean.  Exercise  XL. — Ocean  Currents.  Exercise  XLI. — Tides.  The  consid- 
eration of  the  ocean  has  been  curtailed  to  these  two  exercises  for  several  reasons.  A  great 
majority  of  our  schools  are  inland.  Some  other  exercises  which  might  profitably  be  in- 
troduced, where  the  local  interests  of  the  school  are  centered  on  the  sea,  would  require  a 
large  amount  of  special  material.  Exercises  on  the  oceanic  topic  of  most  general  interest, 
oceanic  routes  of  commerce,  can  readily  be  devised  by  the  teacher  of  classes  where  special 
emphasis  is  placed  on  this  subject. 

Exercise  XXXIX. — Coast  Line  Correlation  belongs  as  much  under  this  topic  as  under 
Physiography  of  the  Lands.  The  same  might  be  said  of  other  exercises  dealing  with  physio- 
graphic provinces  which  border  on  the  coast. 

Supplemental  Study  of  Harbors  and  the  Development  of  Navigation. — Special  studies, 
requiring  material  of  local  interest,  would  be  a  study  of  various  types  of  harbors.  Charts 
for  such  a  study  may  be  obtained  from  the  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey, 
Washington,  D.  C.  A  special  study  of  New  York  City  harbor  would  be  of  interest  in  that 
locality.  The  Geologic  Folio  of  New  York  City,  No.  83,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  price  50c,  would  serve  as  a  basis  for  this. 

Teachers  who  are  versed  in  history  will  be  interested  in  having  the  class  trace  the 
course  of  navigation  development,  first  along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  then  among 
the  islands  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  then  to  the  remoter  peninsulas,  out  of  the  gate  of 
Gibraltar,  etc.  Or  as  developed  from  the  Norse  center.  This  could  be  done  with  a  series  of 
charts. 

It  is  worth  while  to  have  students  trace  ocean  steamship  routes  on  outline  maps  even 


A   GUIDE  FOR  LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY   TEACHING 


13 


though  such  maps,  completed,  occur  in  the  text  used.    By  means  of  the  globe  teach  the 
significance  of  great  circle  sailing. 

The  Atmosphere.  Exercises  XLII  to  LVI  inclusive.  The  causes  of  atmospheric 
phenomena  are  largely  problems  of  physics,  and  many  of  them  are,  as  yet,  only  imperfectly 
understood.  On  the  other  hand  the  various  characteristics  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  dis- 
tribution of  its  phenomena  have  very  direct  effects  on  the  activities  of  men.  Therefore,  the 
emphasis  in  these  exercises  is  put  on  the  latter  phase  of  the  topic. 

Cooperation  of  the  Physics  Department. — Where  a  course  in  physical  geography  is  be- 
ing given,  and  causal  relations  are  considered  the  more  important  phase,  these  exercises 
may  well  be  amplified  by  the  introduction  of  a  series  of  demonstrations,  with  apparatus 
from  the  physics  laboratory  of  the  school.  In  this  connection  the  geography  teacher  should 
secure  the  cooperation  of  the  physics  teacher,  and  the  use  of  the  physics  laboratory.  The 
physics  and  geography  classes  may,  with  profit,  be  combined  for  several  periods  while 
such  studies  are  being  made. 

Reproduction  of  Diagrams  as  an  Aid  to  the  Teacher. — The  first  of  the  cross-section 
diagrams  required  in  Exercise  XLV  (of  monthly  mean  temperatures  at  a  number  of  places 
in  different  parts  of  the  world)  has  been  filled  in  by  the  writer,  and  is  reproduced  on 
page  16  of  this  Guide,  as  a  suggestion  to  teachers,  of  the  sort  of  results  which  such  work 
gives;  and  also  to  show  a  series  of  symbols  which  may  be  used,  instead  of  colored  pencils,  to 
make  the  different  curves  stand  out  clearly. 

There  is  reproduced,  also,  on  page  17,  a  filled  in  copy  of  Fig.  25,  Map  of  Temperatures 
on  a  Winter's  Day  in  Exercise  XLVIII.  This  is  inserted  to  show  that,  while  such  maps  are 
not  difficult  to  complete,  they  nevertheless  give  a  very  intelligible  and  striking  conception 
of  the  temperature  conditions  of  the  United  States  at  different  seasons.  While  this  is  re- 
produced in  black  and  white,  the  effect  is  much  more  striking  if  blue  pencil  and  red  ink 

are  used,  as  directed  in  the  exercise. 

i 

REPRODUCTIONS  OF  CROSS  SECTIONS  AND  DIAGRAMS 

EXERCISE  XVIII 

MONTROSS  SHEET,  MD. — VA. 

CROSS  SECTION  BETWEEN  TEMPLETON  (A)  AND  SOUTH  END  OF  LAKE  TO  N.  W.  (B) 


no 

120 
100 

80 

BO 

,-  —  ' 

1  — 

—  •. 

/ 

\ 

I 

\ 

I 

/ 

\ 

f 

/ 

\ 

1                   i 

' 

1 

\ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

Horizontal  Scale,  1"  =  1  mile  (approx.) 
Vertical  Scale,  1/s"  =  2Q' 

EXERCISE  XVIII 

As  ABOVE  EXCEPT  VERTICAL  SCALE 


140 

fin 

/ 

s 

—  •  ' 

v>> 

[ 

" 

-  —  • 

' 

x 

—*^ 

2 

' 

Vertical  Scale,  1/8"  =  SO' 

EXERCISE  XVIII 

MONTROSS  SHEET,  MD. — VA. 

PROFILE  OF  STREAM  BETWEEN  CHILTON  AND  STRATFORD 


LAKE 


SOURCE 


Horizontal  Scale — as  above 
Vertical  Scale,  1/g"  =  40' 


14 


A   GUIDE  FOR  LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY   TEACHING 


EXERCISE  XXI 

DONALDSONVILLE  SHEET — LA. 

CROSS  SECTION  OF  Miss.  R.  ON  N.  AND  S.  LINE  (APPROX.)  BETWEEN  THE  LETTERS  R  AND  I  OF  THE  WORD  RIVER 


Horizontal  Scale,  1"  =  1  mile  (approx.) 
Vertical  Scale,  1/s"  =  20' 

EXERCISE  XXII 

FARGO  SHEET,  N.  D. — MINN. 
CROSS  SECTION  FROM  W.  TO  E.  ALONG  ROAD  SOUTH  OF  WILD  RICE 


Horizontal  Scale,  1"=2  miles  (approx.) 
Vertical  Scale,  1/8"  =  40' 


SOURCE 


EXERCISE  XXIII 

WlNTERVILLE  SHEET — N.  C. 
PROFILE  OF  HARDEE  CREEK 


MOUTH 


Horizontal  Scale,  1"  =  1  mile 
Vertical  Scale,  1/8"  =  20' 


EXERCISE  XXIV 

MT.  CARRIZO  SHEET — COL. 

CROSS  SECTION  ON  A  N.  AND  S.  LINE  S.  W.  OF  MOUNT  CARRIZO  SHOWING  MESA  FORM 

5700- 

5000 

5500 

5400 

5300 

5200 


N 


Horizontal  Scale,  1"  =  2  miles  (approx.) 
Vertical  Scale,  l/8"  =  UM 

EXERCISE  XXIV 
SYRACUSE  SHEET — KAN. 
CROSS  SECTION  FROM  JOHNSON  TO  COGNAC 


Horizontal  Scale,  1"  =  2  miles  (approx.) 
Vertical  Scale,  lfa"=8Q' 


A   GUIDE  FOR  LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY   TEACHING 


15 


EXERCISE  XXV 

CENTERPOINT  SHEET — W.  VA. 

CROSS  SECTION  ON  LINE  N.  FROM  SEDALIA 


1320 
1240 
1100 
1080 
1000 
920 
R40 

(• 

1 

\ 

/ 

\ 

1 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

f 

,  — 

•s 

N 

f 

s^ 

f 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

I 

/ 

\ 

1 

] 

/ 

i 

\ 

/ 

\. 

7 

\ 

s* 

•^ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

/ 

\ 

1 

\ 

/ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

y 

^y 

j 

V 

' 

V_ 

r-S 

Horizontal  Scale,  1"  =  1  mile  (approx.) 
Vertical  Scale,  l/8"=8Q' 

EXERCISE  XXVI 

CALDWELL  SHEET — KAN. 
CROSS  SECTION  OF  FALL  CREEK  VALLEY  FROM  S.  W.  TO  N.  E. 


1240 
1200 

nno 

—  — 

—  — 

—  «. 

\, 

*—** 



s 

•^ 

fs 

^-~ 

Horizontal  Scale,  1"  =  2  miles  (approx.) 
Vertical  Scale,  Vs'^40' 

EXERCISE  XXVII 

WHITEWATER  SHEET — Wis. 
CROSS  SECTION  OF  TERMINAL  MORAINE  FROM  N.  TO  S.  S.  W.  OF  TOWN  OF  WHITEWATER 


080 
WO 
900 
860 
(KO 

r 

N 

i 

>^r~- 

\, 

•  —  - 

,  — 

— 

—  " 

/ 

y 

<--> 

Horizontal  Scale,  1"  =  1  mile  (approx.) 
Vertical  Scale,  l/8"  =  4Q' 

EXERCISE  XXXIII 

CHIEF  MOUNTAIN  SHEET — MONT. 
CROSS  SECTION  OF  VALLEY  OF  SWIFTCURRENT  CREEK  FROM  N.  W.  TO  S.  E. 


7100 
7100 
7000 
6800 
6600 
6100 
6200 
6900 
5300 
5600 
5100 
5200 
5000 
4000 

N, 

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\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

^  - 

( 

S 

/ 

\ 

/ 

s 

I 

' 

\ 

/ 

\ 

/ 

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N.W.  S.E. 

Horizontal  Scale,  1"  =  2  miles  (approx.) 
Vertical  Scale,  1/8"  =  2QQ' 


16 


A   GUIDE  FOR  LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY  TEACHING 


EXERCISE  XLV 

SEASONAL  TEMPERATURE  CURVES 


90 
85 
80 
75 
70 
65 
60 
55 
59 
45 
40 

25 

FREEZING  
30 

25 
20 
15 
10 
5 
0 
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-10 
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-20 
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-30 
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LEGEND:- 


NEW  YORK  CITY SINGAPORE ARCTIC,   LAT.  82 | 

KEY  WEST 0 o o YUMA,  ARIZ x x « ST.VINCENT,  MINN 

CENTRAL  AUSTRALIA- CENTRAL  ATLANTIC,  EQUATOR  _ 


A   GUIDE  FOR  LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY   TEACHING 


17 


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18  A   GUIDE  FOR  LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY   TEACHING 

LIST  OF  MATERIALS  NEEDED  FOR  EXERCISES 

With  information  as  to  costs,  place  to  purchase  and  other  suggestions.  The  Roman  numerals  following 
the  name  of  the  article  are  the  numbers  of  the  Exercises  in  which  it  is  used.  Cost  estimates  of  material 
needed  by  school  are  made  on  the  basis  of  a  class  of  ten  students. 

Materials  to  Which  No  Cost  Is  Attached 

To  be  supplied  by  the  teacher  or  by  the  pupils. 

For  Each  Student. — Apple — I;  Pin — I;  Knitting  Needle — I;  Window  Glass,  small  piece  (may  be  had  from 
local  paint  and  glass  store) — VIII;  Piece  of  Coal — XIII;  Field  Soil  from  beneath  sod  (if  in  city  go 
to  local  park  and  secure  a  quantity) — XIV;  Soft  leather  disk,  3  to  5  in.  in  diameter  (patching,  upper 
leather  from  local  shoe  shops) — XLII;  Wide  mouthed  drinking  glass — XLII,  XLIII;  Watch  (op- 
tional with  student) — V. 

For  General  Class  Use. — Pair  of  shears — II;  Chalk  boxes,  or  wooden  blocks — XVI.  Chart  No.  14,  Mississippi 
River  Commission,  Liggett  Building,  St.  Louis,  Mo.  (Several  copies  will  be  supplied  to  schools  free 
of  cost,  additional  copies  10  cents  each) — XXI.  Daily  Weather  Map — LI.  On  application  to  the 
United  States  Weather  Bureau,  Washington,  D.  C.  this  map  will  be  mailed  daily  to  the  school  with- 
out cost.  The  Bureau  will  also  supply  blank  maps  of  larger  size  for  recording  original  data. 

Materials  of  Small  Cost  to  Be  Supplied  by  Each  Student 

Pen  and  pen  holder,  pencil,  ruler. 

Colored  pencils— VII,  XVI,  XXI  to  XXVI  inclusive,  XXIX  to  XXXV  inclusive.  Dixon's  Colored 
Crayons,  Set  No.  337,  Jos.  Dixon  Crucible  Co.,  Jersey  City,  Mnf .  Sold  by  stationers  generally.  Cost  10  cents 
per  set  of  six  different  colors. 

Contour  Map  of  the  United  States  18"  X  28"— XXI  to  XXXIX  inclusive.  Cost  15  cents  each.  If  35 
of  these  maps  are  ordered  at  one  time,  or  if  total  order  for  topographic  maps  amounts  to  $3.00  or  more, 
these  maps  are  supplied  at  9  cents  each.  United  States  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C.  Send 
money  order  with  order. 

Material  of  Special  Design  to  Be  Supplied  by  School 

Rod  and  Cardboard  Apparatus — V,  VI.    Can  be  set  up  by  teacher.    Directions  given  in  Manual. 

Cost S  .10 

Table  or  Platform  for  Miniature  Land  Surface,  XV,  XVI.    To  be  made  by  local  carpenter.    Cost 

may  vary  from  $3.00  to  $7.00  according  to  locality.    Cost,  approximately 5.00 

Tank  for  Land  Model  in  Erosion  Experiment,  XIX.    Made  by  local  tinner  or  roofer.    Cost  approx- 
imately        5.00 

Wooden  pointer  with  sharp  metal  tip,  XVI.    Made  by  local  caipenter.    Cost .25 

Material  of  Small  Cost,  Obtainable  from  Local  Stores  Everywhere.     To  Be  Supplied  by  School 

Sheets  of  blank  paper— II,  XVII,  XVIII.    Cost 25 

Sheets  of  wrapping  paper — II.    Cost .05 

Base  balls— II.    Cost 25 

Cotton  string— VII.    Cost 05 

Steel  knives  or  scratch  points — VIII  to  XI,  inclusive.    Cost 1.00 

(A  household  paring  knife  or  shoe  maker's  pegging  awl  best  serves  the  purpose.) 

Hydrochloric  acid,  4  oz. — VIII  to  XIV,  inclusive.    Cost .10 

Glass  plates— XIV.    Cost 10 

(Discarded  negatives,  cleaned,  from  local  photographer.) 
Yard  sticks— XV.    Cost 50 

(Often  distributed  by  merchants  for  advertising  purposes,  gratis.) 

Garden  hose— XIX.    Cost 2.50 

Twine— XLII.    Cost 10 

Cheese  cloth— XLVI.    Cost 10 

Fruit  jar,  1  quart— XLVI.    Cost 10 

Alcohol,  4  oz— XLVI.    Cost 10 

Muslin— XLVI.    Cost 10 

Ice— XLVII.    Cost ^. 10 

Materials  Not  Readily  Obtainable  in  Many  Localities.     To  Be  Supplied  by  School 

For  Each  Student. 

Desk  Globes — I  to  VII  inclusive.    Cost $3.00 

Six  inch  diameter,  wire  stand.     Cost  each  30  cents,  per  dozen,  $3.00. 
Rand,  McNally  and  Co.,  142  Fifth  Ave.,  N.  Y.  C. 

Compass  Dividers— III,  IV,  VI.    Cost 2.50 

Eagle  Compass  and  Divider,  No.  569.     Eagle  Pencil  Co.,  N.  Y.  C. 
(Steel  dividers  give  more  accurate  results,  and  may  be  obtained  from  local  hardware 
dealers.) 


A   GUIDE  FOR  LABORATORY  GEOGRAPHY   TEACHING  19 

For  Each  Student. 

Test  tubes,  6  in.  by  58".    Cost 30 

Eimer  and  Amend,  205  Third  Ave..  N.  Y.  C.    No.  4872  of  their  1910  catalog. 

Minerals  and  Rocks— VIII  to  XIV  inclusive.    Cost 4.80 

The  Geography  Supply  Bureau,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Cheapest  set,  Catalog  No.  9,  Set  No.  1,  One  dozen  sets,  $4.80.    Better  set,  larger  speci- 
mens, packed  in  wooden  case,  Catalog  No.  13,  Set  No.  5.    Ten  sets,  $20.00. 

Topographic  Sheets,  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  XVIII  to  XXXIX  inclusive.    Total  cost 18.60 

In  lots  of  50  or  more  these  sheets  (with  exceptions  as  noted  below)  cost  6  cents  each 
when  obtained  directly  from  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  Washington^,  D.  C. 
Less  than  50  sheets  cost  10  cents  each.    Money  must  be  sent  with  order.    25  different 
6  cent  sheets  are  needed,  making  250  in  all  for  class  of  10,  or  $15.00. 
Names  of  6  cent  sheets,  and  numbers  of  Exercises  in  which  they  are  used: 

XVIII— Montross,  Md.-Va.  XXIX— Delaware  Water  Gap,  Pa.-N.  J. 

XXI— Donaldsonville,  La.  XXX,  XXXI,  XXXII— Mt.  Mitchell,  N.  C.-Tenn. 

XXII,  XXIII,  XXVI— Fargo,  N.  D.-Minn.  XXXI— Farmville,  Va. 

XXIII— Winterville,  N.  C.  XXXII,  XXXIII— Lake  Placid,  N.  Y. 

XXIV,  XXV— Mt.  Carrizo,  Col.  XXXIII— Chief  Mountain,  Mont. 

XXIV,  XXV— Syracuse,  Kan.  XXXIV— Spokane,  Wash.-Idaho. 
XXIV— Kearney,  Neb.  XXXV— Granite  Range,  Nev. 

XXV,  XXVI— Centerpoint,  W.  Va.  XXXVII— Cucamonga,  Cal. 

XXVI,  XXVII— Caldwell,  Kan.  XXXVIII— San  Francisco,  Cal. 
XXVII— Whitewater,  Wis.  XXXVIII— Tamalpais,  Cal. 
XXVIII— Cleveland  and  Vicinity,  Ohio.  XXXIX— Boothbay,  Me. 
XXIX,  XXX,  XXXII— Monterey,  Va.-W.  Va.  XXXIX— Barnegaf,  N.  J. 

XXXIX— Port  Orford,  Ore. 

The  following  sheets  are  double  size  and  cost  12  cents  each  when  50  or  more  sheets  (of  any  kind)  are 
ordered  at  the  same  time.  When  a  lesser  number  is  ordered  the  cost  is  20  cents  each.  3  different  sheets, 
30  in  all,  are  needed  for  a  class  of  10  costing  $3.60  if  ordered  at  same  time  as  the  6  cent  sheets. 

XXVIII— St.  Louis,  Mo.-Ill.  XXVIII— Denver,  Col. 

XXXVI— Bright  Angel,  Ariz. 

If  ordered  of  dealers  the  6  cent  and  12  cent  topographic  sheets  cost  10  and  20  cents  each,  respectively, 
regardless  of  the  number  ordered. 

Note:  On  Jan.  1,  1913,  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  doubled  the  prices  on  most  of  its  map 
publications.  The  prices  quoted  above  are  the  new  prices. 

For  General  Class  Use. 

Wall  Maps  of  Different  Scale— II,  III.    Cost $4.00 

Write:  John  W.  Iliff  &  Co.,  171  E.  Randolph  St.,  Chicago,  111.,  or  J.  M.  Olcott,  63  Fifth 

Ave.,  N.  Y.  C.    Ask  for  catalogs.    Select  maps  of  interest  to  whole  school. 
Minerals  and  Rocks — VIII  to  XIV  inclusive.    Cost 15.00 

For  General  Class  Use.    In  this  classification  come  such  specimens  as  "Rock  with 

Lichens  Attached,"  etc. 

Geography  Supply  Bureau,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.    Their  "Science  Sense  Set".    This  contains 

all  the  specimens  used  by  each  student,  3  in.  x  4  in.  in  size;  also  7  additional  specimens 

of  special  kinds  used  in  the  Exercises. 
Acid  Dropping  Bottles — VIII  to  XIV  inclusive.    Cost 1.00 

"Ranvier's",  .35  each,  3  for  $1.00. 

Eimer  and  Amend,  205  Third  Ave.,  N.  Y.  C.    Their  1910  catalog  No.  2433. 
Spray  Nozzle— XIX.    Cost 4.00 

The  "Vermorel"  Nozzle  and  Coupling  for  one  half  inch  hose. 

Goulds  Manufacturing  Company,  Seneca  Falls,  N.  Y.     Their  catalog  numbers  1310 

and  67. 
Relief  Map  of  the  United  States  18"  X  28"— XXI,  XXXIX,  inclusive.    Cost,  3  copies 45 

1911  Edition  United  States  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C.    15  cents  per  copy. 

Some  teachers  prefer  to  use  this  instead  of  the  contour  map  of  the  United  States  for  each 

student.    Where  35  or  more  maps  are  ordered  this  Relief  Map  costs  only  $.09  each. 
Wall  Map  of  the  United  States,  showing  Railroad  Lines— XXXIII.    Cost 1.25 

National  Railway  Publication  Company,  24  Park  Place,  N.  Y.  C.     (Ask  for  latest 

edition.) 
Glass  Tube,  sealed  at  end,  35"  long— XLII.    Cost 35 

Eimer  and  Amend,  205  Third  Ave.,  N.  Y.  C.    1910  Catalog  No.  2231. 
Bottle  of  Mercury — XLII.    Cost,  approximately 3.00 

Costs  90c  an  oz.  approximately.     May  be  borrowed  from  physics  or  chemistry  labora- 

torv  in  many  schools. 
Glass  Funnel— XLII.    Cost 10 

Diameter  1  inch.    Eimer  and  Amend,  205  Third  Ave.,  N.  Y.  C.    1910  Catalog  No.  3347. 


20 

For  General  Class  Use. 

Thermometer,  Weather  Bureau  Pattern— XLIII,  XLIV,  XLVI,  LI.    Cost 4.50 

Geography  Supply  Bureau,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.    Catalog  No.  29. 

Cheaper  thermometers  may  be  used.     These  may  be  had  locally  at  prices  as  low  as 

25c  each. 
Barometer,  Mercurial — XLIV  and  LI.    Cost 20.00 

Geography  Supply  Bureau,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.     Catalog  No.  26. 

A  better  instrument,  the  Weather  Bureau  Pattern,  costs  $45.00.    Catalog,  No.  27. 
Rain  Gauge— LIV.    Cost 4.25 

Geography  Supply  Bureau,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.    Catalog  No.  31. 

Supplemental  Material 
Ores  of  Different  Metals. 

Write  Ward's  Natural  Science  Establishment,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  for  catalog. 
Lantern  Slides  for  Quizzes. 

Write  Geography  Supply  Bureau,  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  for  catalogs. 
Large  Globe  for  Class  Room. 

Write  J.  M.  Olcott,  63  Fifth  Ave.,  N.  Y.  C.,  for  catalog. 

Summary.     Low  Total  Cost  of  Equipment 

From  these  figures  it  will  be  seen  that  a  geography  laboratory  for  a  class  of  ten  students  need,  at  the 
maximum,  cost  only  $165.00.  This  sum  will  provide,  in  addition  to  the  articles  and  permanent  equipment 
noted  above,  for  the  purchase  of  tables  and  chairs  and  an  inexpensive  closet  for  storing  maps  and  apparatus. 

If  the  seating  equipment  and  permanent  fixtures  of  the  laboratory  are  omitted  from  the  estimate,  a 
maximum  figure  of  $115.00  will  suffice  for  material.  This  may  be  reduced  to  as  low  a  minimum  as  $40.00, 
especially  if  not  all  the  exercises  are  taught  and  only  a  very  few  schools  will  have  the  tune  necessary  for 
completing  them  all. 

Once  equipped,  additional  units  of  ten  students  may  be  provided  for  at  an  expense  of  about  $30.00 
per  unit. 

Schools  which  already  possess  a  physics  or  chemistry  laboratory  will  find  that  many  expense  items 
on  these  lists  can  be  eliminated  by  using  part  of  the  equipment  of  such  laboratories. 

Where  every  dollar  counts  it  will  be  found  that  a  major  portion  of  the  exercises  in  the  manual  may 
be  successfully  taught  with  a  single  appropriation  of  from  $30.00  to  $40.00. 


BOOKS    BY    RALPH    S.    TARR 

Professor  of  Dynamic  Geology  and  Physical  Geography  at  Cornell  University 


New  Physical  Geography 

Fully  illustrated,  cloth,  I2mo,  $l.oo  net 

"  I  like  the  spirit  and  tone  of  this  work  more  than  anything  else  I  have  seen  on  the  subject. 
The  presentation  especially  of  erosion,  land  formation,  glacial  action  and  effect  is  especially 
clear,  and  with  the  aid  of  the  admirable  pictures  and  diagrams  becomes  truly  fascinating. 
The  topical  questions  and  ample  references  at  the  end  of  each  chapter  make  it  a  very  usable 
book."  —  H.  E.  BENNETT,  State  Normal  School,  De  Funiak  Springs,  Florida. 

First  Book  of  Physical  Geography 

Illustrated,  cloth,  121110,  $r.lo  net 

"This  is,  in  every  case,  the  new  physical  geography,  skillfully  and  attractively  presented.  It 
is  a  thoroughly  scientific  work,  and  yet  its  treatment  is  so  elementary  that  it  may  be  used 
profitably  in  the  ninth  grade  of  the  grammar  school.  The  book  is  packed  with  information 
needed  by  every  grammar  school  pupil,  but  what  signifies  vastly  more,  the  pupils  get  this 
information  in  a  way  that  gives  thorough  discipline  in  observation,  careful  reading,  dis- 
criminating thinking."  — Journal  of  Education. 

Elementary  Physical  Geography 

Illustrated,  I2mo,  half  leather,  $1.40  net 

This  book  is  designed  specially  for  classes  in  the  latter  part  of  the  high  school  course. 
The  material  has  been  carefully  selected  so  as  to  weed  out  the  superfluous  and  less  important, 
and  care  has  been  taken  to  insure  scientific  accuracy.  The  illustrations  are  a  prominent 
feature  of  the  book. 

The  Physical  Geography  of  New  York  State 

Illustrated,  cloth,  8vo,  $3.50  net 

Summary  of  Contents 

.  General  Physiographic  Features  —  The  Mountains  of  the  State  —  Plains  and  Plateaus  —  The 
Influence  of  the  Glacial  Period  upon  Topography  —  The  Rivers  of  New  York  —  Lakes  and 
Swamps  —  Origin  of  the  Basins  of  the  Great  Lakes  —  Post-glacial  History  of  the  Great  Lakes 
—  Niagara  —  The  Shore  Lines  —  The  Climate  of  New  York  —  Influence  of  Physiographic 
Features  upon  the  Industrial  Developments  of  the  State. 


Teachers  are  invited  to  send  for  a  full  list  of  the  series 
of  geographies  by    Tarr  and  McMurry. 


PUBLISHED    BY 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

64-66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 


UNIVERSITY   01'    CALIFORNIA   LIBRARY 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


26  1916 

"13  15192* 
MH24    1930 


30m-l,'15 


